Rural China Research Articles

Residents’ willingness towards first-contact with primary health care under uncertainty in healthcare: a cross-sectional study in rural China

ObjectiveTo estimate Chinese rural residents’ willingness degree of initially contacting primary healthcare (PHC) under uncertainty in healthcare and to explore its influencing factors.SettingThis study collected primary data from rural residents...

The synergy effect of agricultural dual-scale management on farmers' income: evidence from rural China

PurposeThis study aims to estimate the synergy effect of agricultural dual-scale management (ADM) on farmers' total household income, its heterogeneous effects and its mechanisms.Design/methodology/approachThis study constructs a theoretical analysis framework based on the division of labor and synergy theory, empirically assesses the impact of ADM on farmers' income, and further discusses the heterogeneity and mechanisms using the propensity score matching (PSM) and quantile treatment effect (QTE) models. Data is collected from 1,076 households across 4 cities in Liaoning Province of China in 2021.FindingsADM can improve the total household income of farmers, and the impact force is greater than that of the single-scale management mode. ADM is more conducive to improving the income of farmers with low income and low labor endowment. Moreover, ADM can improve agriculture production efficiency, increase net grain production income. Nevertheless, it has no significant effect on farmers' off-farm employment income.Originality/valuePrevious studies have mainly focused on the income effect of land scale management or service scale management. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to identify the synergy effect of ADM on farmers' income in China. It provides new insights into the process of agricultural production and management mode transitions in rural China.

Crowding in or Out？National Public Pension, Inter-Generational Contract, and Family Support to Empty-Nest Older Parents in Rural China

ABSTRACT Evidence to date has been inconclusive on the effects of public pension on family support to older adults, and the underlying mechanism behind such effects remains unclear. This study examines the effects of the New Rural Social Pension Scheme on family support to empty-nest older parents in rural China, where family care is traditionally favored for older adults. Using data from the China Longitudinal Aging Social Survey, the findings reveal that pension receipt promotes bidirectional financial transfers and intimate relationships between generations, thus increasing (or crowding in) children’s financial and care support to their empty-nest parents. On the other hand, receiving pensions may discourage parental care support to children and partially decrease (or crowd out) children’s financial and care support. This crowding-out effect, however, is limited and thus insufficient for counteracting the crowding-in effects from other pathways. Overall, these findings indicate that national welfare, such as pensions, can encourage family support through inter-generational contracts and intimacy, strengthening familial bonds and facilitating mutual assistance within families. For policy implications, government should prioritize improving benefit levels of public pensions to harness the caregiving potential of families and providing essential services that assist families in addressing care burdens.

Can Market-Oriented Allocation of Land Factors Promote the Adoption of Cropland Quality Protection Behaviors by Farmers: Evidence from Rural China

Can Market-Oriented Allocation of Land Factors Promote the Adoption of Cropland Quality Protection Behaviors by Farmers: Evidence from Rural China

Technical efficiency and its convergence among village clinics in rural China: evidence from Shanxi Province

IntroductionVillage clinics (VCs) are the foundation of the three-tiered health service system in China, delivering basic and routine outpatient services to citizens in rural China. VC technical efficiency and its convergence play a critical role in policy decisions regarding the distribution of health service resources in rural China.MethodsThis study measured VC technical efficiency (using the slacks-based measure model), its convergence (using the convergence model), and the factors that influence the convergence in Shanxi Province, China. Data were obtained from the Shanxi Rural Health Institute 2014–2018 Health Statistics Report, which involved 3,543 VCs.ResultsThe results showed that VC technical efficiency was low and differed by region. There was no α convergence in VC technical efficiency, but evidence of β convergence was found in Shanxi. The main factors that influence convergence were the building area of each VC (BA), proportion of government subsidies (PGS), and ratio of total expenditure to total income of each VC (RTETI).ConclusionThe government should increase investments in VCs and improve VC technical efficiency. Meanwhile, the government should be aware of and take measures to curb the inequity in VC technical efficiency among different regions and take suitable measures to curb this disparity.

The Impacts of the Poverty Alleviation Relocation Program (PARP) on Households’ Education Investment: Evidence from a Quasi-Experiment in Rural China

Families’ education investment in their children is crucial for fostering and accumulating human capital among rural children in China. This study examines the impact of the Poverty Alleviation Relocation Program (PARP) on household education investment using panel data from a large-scale survey conducted in 16 counties across 8 provinces over three waves. Employing a staggered difference-in-differences (DID) method, we find a significant increase in average education investment per student in households following the PARP’s implementation, supported by multiple robustness tests. Mechanism analysis reveals that the increase is primarily driven by a higher household income and lower medical expenses among relocated families. Heterogeneity analysis shows notable variations based on relocation attributes and household characteristics, with stronger effects particularly observed for dispersed relocation, scattered resettlement, and household heads with over 6 years of education or in good health. The impact is sustained and strengthens with longer durations of relocation. Our findings offer valuable insights for enhancing rural household education investment.

E-commerce development, poverty reduction and income growth in rural China

PurposeThis research examines the impact of the National Rural E-commerce Comprehensive Demonstration Project (NRECDP) on poverty reduction and income growth in rural China.Design/methodology/approachThe study develops a theoretical framework, which considers the role of geographical, technological, institutional and cultural factors for the e-commerce poverty alleviation (e-CPA) model. Empirically, this study applies the difference-in-differences (DID) model and the event study approach to evaluate the effectiveness of NRECDP on the basis of large-scale county-level and household-level panel data spanning 2010 to 2020.FindingsThe study found that the NRECDP, as a government-led, information and communication technology (ICT)-enabled, market-based program, has led to a significant increase in per capita output of primary industry employees, as well as in the disposable income of rural residents, especially those in national-level poverty-stricken (NP) counties. The interventions of the NRECDP achieved these positive outcomes through transportation and Internet infrastructure improvement, ICT adoption and human capital accumulation in impoverished towns and villages in remote rural areas. These effects are larger in the eastern region of China, followed by the central region, whereas the weakest effects were found in the western region. However, we found little evidence of the NRECDP increasing household developmental expenditure.Research limitations/implicationsThe study findings have important practical and policy implications for rural e-commerce development and self-sustained poverty alleviation solutions. The research revealed the significance of government NRECDP interventions for increasing rural income, reducing living costs, and empowering the rural population in its multiple social roles, namely, as consumers, producers, employees and microentrepreneurs. The local cultural context may also play a role in ICT adoption and entrepreneurship cultivation with a downstream effect on the effectiveness of e-CPA practices. Policymakers would need to ensure a supportive entrepreneur-friendly environment for rural e-commerce development and continue implementing progressive policies for poverty alleviation.Originality/valueThis study explores poverty alleviation issues in China by developing for the first time a multi-faceted framework that is subsequently tested by both county-level and household-level large-scale observations. Also, it is the first study to provide nationwide empirical evidence on the effectiveness of e-CPA in narrowing down the spatial and digital divides in China. In addition to the impact of geography, technology and governmental support, this study also sheds light on the role of culture in the adoption and diffusion of digital technologies and as a source of local entrepreneurial opportunities.

Does unstable off-farm employment cause stagnant farmland rent-out in rural China?

PurposeThis paper aims to examine the impacts of unstable off-farm employment on the probability and stability of farmland rent-out and explore its mechanisms.Design/methodology/approachThe paper adopts Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Probit, Tobit, Order probit models with two-way fixed effects to conduct empirical analysis based on the balanced panel data collected in 2016 and 2023 with a national representativeness sample of 1,206 rural households in 100 villages across 5 provinces in China.FindingsThe empirical results showed that unstable off-farm employment had negative effects on the probability of farmland rent-out, but it had no effects on the stability of farmland rent-out. The mechanism analysis showed that unstable off-farm employment affected the probability of farmland rent-out by decreasing the probability of purchasing houses in city and endowment insurance with high pension. Heterogeneity analysis indicated that the negative effect of unstable off-farm employment was much larger for the households with higher share of labor engaging in off-farm employment outside home county, elder members in the households and those located in the villages of mountain areas.Originality/valueThis paper is the first to define the unstable off-farm employment from the perspective of incontiguous off-farm employment for several years, which could capture the normality rather than particular case in a certain year of off-farm employment among rural labors. Using these new measurements of unstable off-farmland, this paper examined the impacts and mechanisms of share of unstable off-farm employment on the probability and stability of farmland rent-out.

Does Farmers’ Cognition Enhance Their Enthusiasm for Adopting Sustainable Digital Agricultural Extension Services? Evidence from Rural China

The service model of digital agricultural technology extension, as a novel and sustainable approach, plays a pivotal role in facilitating the digital transformation of farmers’ agricultural practices. Leveraging survey data from 1475 farmers in China, the study employed a multivariate ordered logit model to investigate the relationship between farmers’ cognition and enthusiasm to adopt digital agricultural extension services. The findings revealed that subjective and objective cognitions positively influence farmers’ enthusiasm for adopting digital agricultural extension services. Furthermore, policy incentives, as a significant regulatory factor, effectively influence farmers’ cognition levels and enthusiasm to adopt digital agricultural extension services. Additionally, female respondents, farmers with higher educational levels, and membership in agricultural cooperatives all facilitate the adoption of these services. This study not only enriches the theoretical framework for agricultural technology promotion, aiding in the understanding of farmers’ decision-making processes when adopting digital agricultural extension services, but also provides a deeper insight into the role of digital agricultural technologies in promoting sustainable agricultural development, offering scientific evidence for relevant policy formulation and implementation.

How new rural elites facilitate community-based homestead system reform in rural China: A perspective of village transformation

In line with China's rural transformation, the homestead system reform (HSR) pilots have been launched to rectify adverse land-related issues by formalising and capitalising land property rights. In contrast with a government-led model prevalent among most national HSR pilots, a community-based approach has been experimented with and proven efficient in Yujiang County, southern China. It highlights a pivotal role of the endogenous and public-spirited activists who are locally called ‘new rural elites’ (NREs). From the perspective of village transformation processes, this paper establishes a theoretical framework and employs a case study in Yujiang to interpret the underlying rationale for NREs' involvement in HSR. The findings indicate that HSR, aiming at multi-level space reshaping and ‘three rights separation’ reform, is in alignment with the triple processes of village transformation (i.e., systemic, communal, and living). The NREs represent a cultural force for facilitating village transformation, which is underpinned by the capacity, channel and carrier endowed by urban-rural linkages, interpersonal value transmission and community social solidarity, respectively. The benevolent dominance of the NREs is jointly shaped by governmental empowerment and accountability, egalitarian property rights design and strong social solidarity. To expand NREs' benevolent roles, this study recommends aligning community empowerment with the improvements of community-based action capacity.

“Elder siblings assist younger ones in going to college”: the moral mission and choice of first-generation college students in rural China

“Elder siblings assist younger ones in going to college”: the moral mission and choice of first-generation college students in rural China

Associations of serum glucocorticoid levels on hypertension and blood pressure-related indicators: a nested case-control study in rural China.

The relationship between glucocorticoids and hypertension has shown inconsistent findings in previous studies. To address this, our study employed a nested case-control design in rural areas to further investigate the association between serum glucocorticoid levels and hypertension, and blood pressure-related indicators. This study employed a nested case-control design, involving 560 pairs of hypertensive cases and matched controls. The concentrations of serum cortisol (F), cortisone (E) and 11-deoxycortisol (S) were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. We employed various methods, including generalized linear model (GLM), conditional logistic regression model, restricted cubic spline regression, subgroup analysis, interaction, and joint effects, with adjustments for multiple covariates to analyze the relationships between glucocorticoids, hypertension, and blood pressure-related indicators. After multivariable adjustments, ln-F, ln-F/E, and ln-S were positively associated with SBP, DBP, pulse pressure (PP), and mean arterial pressure (MAP), while ln-E was negatively associated with DBP and MAP (P < 0.05). Interestingly, ln-S showed no statistically significant association with hypertension prevalence (P > 0.05), whereas ln-F and ln-F/E were positively associated with it (P < 0.05). The adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were 1.153 (1.011-1.315) for ln-F and 2.072 (1.622-2.645) for ln-F/E, respectively. In contrast, ln-E exhibited a negative association with hypertension prevalence (adjusted OR = 0.837, 95% CI 0.714-0.982). Moreover, a significant association was observed between the combined use of high-dose F/E and high-dose S with hypertension prevalence (adjusted OR = 3.273, 95% CI 2.013-5.321). Blood pressure indicators and hypertension prevalence significantly increased with elevated serum F and F/E concentrations (P < 0.05). Interaction analysis further revealed that among women, the positive association between F/E and hypertension prevalence was more pronounced than in men (P < 0.05), and S exhibited a more significant positive association with hypertension prevalence in the overweight population (P < 0.05). Serum F/E and S levels demonstrated positive associations with hypertension and blood pressure-related indicators, and their combined influence exhibited a synergistic effect on hypertension. Notably, F, F/E, and S were associated with heightened hypertension risk, warranting particular attention in women and overweight populations.

Decision-Making Mechanism of Farmers in Land Transfer Processes Based on Sustainable Livelihood Analysis Framework: A Study in Rural China

The act of land transfer in rural areas is an important decision-making mechanism for farmers, to enhance resource allocation efficiency and promote capital mobility, and this act is of strategic importance in promoting the level of agricultural scale and mechanization, land system change, and, thus, the sustainable development of livelihoods and production in China. This study aims to explore farmers’ decision-making mechanisms in the process of land transfer in rural areas, by constructing a theoretical framework. Structural equation modeling was used, based on data from a survey of rural families in the Liaoning Province area of Northeastern China. The main findings are as follows: (1) The seven types of exogenous latent variables, including environmental vulnerability, policy, and five main livelihood assets (natural capital, physical capital, financial capital, human capital, and social capital), are intermediary in farmers’ land transfer behavior, which then positively affect farmers’ livelihood outcomes. (2) Among the exogenous latent variables affecting farmers’ land transfer, human assets have the most significant positive effect, followed by social assets and physical assets, family labor force share, frequency of work information exchange, and number of production tools, greatly affect the corresponding variable. (3) Natural assets play the most important role and have a negative effect on farmers’ land transfer decision; contracted area of land per family is the greatest impacted measurable variable of this. The results of the study suggest that the government should strengthen skills training for farmers, improve the land transfer policy system, and provide appropriate subsidies in a regionally targeted manner. Thus, it can promote the transformation of Chinese-style agricultural modernization and achieve rural revitalization.

How does network infrastructure construction affect household tourism expenditures? An empirical analysis from rural China

The impact of tourist source region’s network infrastructure in developing countries on household tourism expenditures remains inadequately understood. This study helps fill that gap by using the “Broadband China” strategy as a quasi-natural experiment, exploring the mechanisms by which the construction of network infrastructure impacts rural household tourism expenditures in China. Using the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) data from 2014 through 2018, we found that the Broadband China strategy has made a positive contribution to rural household tourism expenditures, especially in the rural areas of central and northeastern China. In addition, we recognized that the broadening of information channels and the provision of convenient transactions are possible mechanisms of influence, with the expansion of information channels through digital networks having an especially pronounced impact. Our research results emphasize the importance of developing network infrastructure and promoting digital literacy in developing regions, in an effort to stimulate tourism demand.

Cash holdings and health shocks

We are the first to investigate how health shocks relate to cash holdings. Using three waves of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study over the period 2013–2018, we document that, for middle‐aged and elderly people living in rural China, the onset of an acute health condition is associated with a 3.0 percentage point higher probability of holding only cash as a safe asset, and a 2.3 percentage point higher proportion of safe assets held in the form of cash. These results are robust to using different samples and estimation methods. We also find that ex‐post reimbursement of medical expenses and lack of bank accessibility may drive the association between health shocks and cash holdings.

From pixels to production: the impact of digital finance on the industrial fabric of rural China

PurposeThe aim of this study is to discern the role of digital finance in driving rural industrial integration and revitalization. Specifically, it intends to shed light on how the deep development of digital finance can contribute to the optimization and transformation of the rural industrial structure. The research further explores the particular effects of this financial transformation in the central and western regions of China.Design/methodology/approachThis research studies the influence of digital finance on rural industrial integration across 30 Chinese provinces from 2011 to 2020. Utilizing the entropy weight method, a comprehensive evaluation index system is established to gauge the level of rural industrial integration. A two-way fixed effects model, intermediary effect model, and threshold effect model are employed to decipher the relationship between digital finance and rural industrial integration.FindingsFindings reveal a positive relationship between digital finance and rural industrial integration. A single threshold feature was identified: beyond a traditional finance development level, the marginal effect of digital finance on rural industrial integration increases. These effects are more noticeable in central and western regions.Originality/valueEmpirical outcomes contribute to policy discourse on rural digital finance, assisting policymakers in crafting effective strategies. Understanding the threshold of traditional finance development provides a new perspective on the potential of digital finance to drive rural industrial integration.

Trajectories of peer victimization among left-behind children in rural China: The role of positive school climate.

Left-behind children are likely to experience peer victimization, which can have detrimental consequences in their developmental outcomes. Yet, limited longitudinal research have examined peer victimization trajectories over time or the factors associated with left-behind children in China. The purpose of the present study was to examine what, if any, distinct trajectories of peer victimization exist among left-behind children and whether these trajectories are related to school climate, left-behind status, and their interactions. Participants were 853 Chinese left-behind children (Mage = 14.25, SD = 2.39; 43.4% girls) who participated in a four-wave longitudinal study conducted in rural China. Participants reported school climate (indexed by safety and order, acceptance and support, equality and fairness, autonomy and cooperation) at T1 and peer victimization across T1 to T4 spanning 2 years. Latent class growth analyses identified four peer victimization trajectories, including a stably low-decreasing group, a moderate-decreasing group, a high-decreasing group, and an increasing group. Multinomial logistic regression analyses revealed that children who perceived more positive school climate were more likely to exhibit a stably low-decreasing trajectory compared to the other three groups. In addition, among left-behind children who perceived more positive school climate, children with single-parent migrating were more likely to be members of the stably low-decreasing group as compared to those with both-parent migrating. Peer victimization among left-behind children is a concern especially for those who were left behind by both parents and perceived less positive school climate. Targeted school-based interventions and services focused on reducing peer victimization and improving school climate are needed for left-behind children, especially those with both-parent migrating.

Homosexual identity and network overlap predictors of HIV infection among older men from rural China: a case–control study

BackgroundThe number of newly reported older (≥50 years old) people living with HIV/AIDS in China has been steadily increasing, and heterosexual transmission has been identified as the major route.MethodsIn this...

Does digital inclusive finance increase land rent? Evidence from rural China

In developing countries, household credit constraints are determining factors affecting the efficient allocation of land resources. Digital financial inclusion is a new type of digital financial business by providing financial services through Internet technology. It broadens the information dissemination channels, provides more nonagricultural employment opportunities, and lowers the household credit constraint. By using data from Chinese farm households, we find that digital inclusive finance affects income of renting out households and expenditure of renting in households through credit mechanisms. Developing digital inclusive finance is a method to promote market-oriented land transfer and the effective utilization of land resources.

Long-term effects of early-life education intervention on children’s outcomes: Evidence from school consolidation in rural China

Government commitment to early-life education intervention has contributed to human capital accumulation and economic growth in developing countries. Using data from the China Family Panel Studies, we investigate the effects of the primary school consolidation program on children’s cognitive development and behavioral performance. Using a cohort difference-in-differences model, we find that rural children who experienced school consolidation performed better in cognitive tests and had higher levels of openness of the Big Five personality traits, but lower levels of extraversion. Further analysis suggests that early-life education intervention generates long-term effects. Those who experienced school consolidation had higher educational attainment, better occupational fit, and more consistent independent learning, but difficulties in interpersonal interaction. Our findings imply that early-life education intervention should pay more attention to the cultivation of socio-emotional abilities.